^ Masinde, Andrew. "FGM: Despite the ban, the monster still rears its ugly head in Uganda" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, New Vision, Uganda, 5 February 2013.
^ 2.0 2.1 "Classification of female genital mutilation" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, Geneva: World Health Organization, 2014 .
^ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting: A Statistical Overview and Exploration of the Dynamics of Change （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, New York: United Nations Children's Fund, July 2013.
^ 4.0 4.1 4.2 "Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting: A Global Concern" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, New York: United Nations Children's Fund, February 2016.
^ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 The State of the World's Children 2015: Executive Summary （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, New York: UNICEF, November 2014, Table 9, pp. 84–89.
^ 6.0 6.1 残割女性生殖器零容忍国际日. [2016-03-18]. （原始内容存档于2015-11-07）.
^ Female genital mutilation中文 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆），国家教育研究院双语词汇、学术名词暨辞书资讯网，2016-03-16
^ 世界卫生组织 | 女性生殖器切割的分类. www.who.int. [2016-03-27]. （原始内容存档于2020-07-15）.
^ "Classification of female genital mutilation", World Health Organization, 2013 (hereafter WHO 2013).
^ 有关残割、麻醉，请参见：UNICEF 2013 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, pp. 2, 44–46。女性生殖器残割盛行地区报告，请参见：UNICEF 2016 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, p. 2.
^ Jasmine Abdulcadira, et al., "Care of women with female genital mutilation/cutting" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, Swiss Medical Weekly, 6(14), January 2011. doi:10.4414/smw.2011.13137 PMID 21213149
^ "Female genital mutilation" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, Geneva: World Health Organization, February 2016.
^ 肯亞女行割禮為守貞 「割掉就不會找男人」 蘋果日報 2015/7/3. [2015-12-25]. （原始内容存档于2015-12-25）.
^ Nahid F. Toubia（英语：Nahid Toubia）, Eiman Hussein Sharief, "Female genital mutilation: have we made progress?" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, International Journal of Gynecology & Obstetrics, 82(3), September 2003, pp. 251–261. doi:10.1016/S0020-7292(03)00229-7 PMID 14499972
^ 15.0 15.1 "Frequently Asked Questions on Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, UNFPA, April 2010: "Types I and II are the most common, with variation among countries. Type III, infibulation, constitutes about 20 percent of all affected women and is most likely in Somalia, northern Sudan and Djibouti."
^ 16.0 16.1 P. Stanley Yoder, Shane Khan, "Numbers of women circumcised in Africa: The Production of a Total" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, USAID, DHS Working Papers, No. 39, March 2008, pp. 13–14. Also see Appendix B, Table 2 ("Types of FGC"), p. 19.
^ 17.0 17.1 "67/146. Intensifying global efforts for the elimination of female genital mutilation" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, United Nations General Assembly, adopted 20 December 2012.
Emma Bonino, "Banning Female Genital Mutilation" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, The New York Times, 19 December 2012.
^ Eric K. Silverman（英语：Eric Silverman）, "Anthropology and Circumcision," Annual Review of Anthropology, 33, 2004, pp. 419–445. JSTOR 25064860
^ Martha Nussbaum, Sex and Social Justice, New York: Oxford University Press, 1999, p. 119 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）.
^ James Karanja, The Missionary Movement in Colonial Kenya: The Foundation of Africa Inland Church, Göttingen: Cuvillier Verlag, 2009, p. 93 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, n. 631.
^ "Eliminating Female genital mutilation: An Interagency Statement" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, New York: World Health Organization, 2008 (hereafter WHO 2008), p. 22.
^ Claire C. Robertson, "Getting beyond the Ew! Factor: Rethinking U.S. Approaches to African Female Genital Cutting," in Stanlie M. James and Claire C. Robertson (eds.), Genital Cutting and Transnational Sisterhood, Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2002 (pp. 54–86), p. 60.
Fran Hosken, The Hosken Report: Genital and Sexual Mutilation of Females, Lexington: Women's International Network, 1994 [1979].
^ UNICEF 2013 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, pp. 6–7.
^ WHO 2008 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, pp. 4, 22.
^ 25.0 25.1 25.2 25.3 UNICEF 2013 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, p. 48.
^ Fadwa El Guindi, "Had This Been Your Face, Would You Leave It as Is?" in Rogaia Mustafa Abusharaf (ed.), Female Circumcision: Multicultural Perspectives, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2007, p. 30 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）.
^ Chantal Zabus, "The Excised Body in African Texts and Contexts," in Merete Falck Borch (ed.), Bodies and Voices: The Force-field of Representation and Discourse in Colonial and Postcolonial Studies, New York: Rodopi, 2008, p. 47 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）.
For "a young woman must 'have her bath' before she has a baby," Chantal Zabus, "'Writing with an Accent': From Early Decolonization to Contemporary Gender Issues in the African Novel in French, English, and Arabic," in Simona Bertacco (ed.), Language and Translation in Postcolonial Literatures, New York: Routledge, 2013, p. 40 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）.
^ Ibrahim Lethome Asmani, Maryam Sheikh Abdi, "De-linking Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting from Islam" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, USAID/UNFPA, 2008, p. 3.
That sunna can refer to more severe forms, Ellen Gruenbaum, The Female Circumcision Controversy: An Anthropological Perspective, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2001, p. 2.
^ 29.0 29.1 Leonard J. Kouba, Judith Muasher, "Female Circumcision in Africa: An Overview" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, African Studies Review, 28(1), March 1985 (pp. 95–110), pp. 96–97.
^ Rossella Lorenzi. How Did Female Genital Mutilation Begin?. How Did Female Genital Mutilation Begin?. 缺少或|url=为空 (帮助); 使用|accessdate=需要含有|url= (帮助)
^ Raqiya D. Abdalla, "'My Grandmother Called it the Three Feminine Sorrows': The Struggle of Women Against Female Circumcision in Somalia," in Abusharaf 2007, p. 190 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）.
^ UNICEF 2013 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, pp. 42–44 and Table 5, p. 181 (for cutters), p. 46 (for home and anaesthesia).
^ Michael Miller and Francesca Moneti, Changing a harmful social convention: Female genital cutting/mutilation （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, Florence: UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre, 2005, p. 7.
^ UNICEF 2013 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, pp. 43–45.
^ Elizabeth Kelly, Paula J. Adams Hillard, "Female genital mutilation" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, Current Opinion in Obstetrics & Gynecology, 17(5), October 2005 (pp. 490–494), p. 491. PMID 16141763
^ Wairagala Wakabi, "Africa battles to make female genital mutilation history" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, The Lancet, 369 (9567), 31 March 2007, pp. 1069–1070. PMID 17405200 doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60508-X
^ UNICEF 2013 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, p. 46 (two percent were missing/don't know).
^ WHO 2008 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, p. 4.
^ P. Stanley Yoder, Shanxiao Wang, Elise Johansen, "Estimates of Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting in 27 African Countries and Yemen" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, Studies in Family Planning, 44(2), June 2013 (pp. 189–204), p. 190. PMID 23720002 doi:10.1111/j.1728-4465.2013.00352.x
Elizabeth F. Jackson, et al., "Inconsistent reporting of female genital cutting status in northern Ghana: Explanatory factors and analytical consequences," Studies in Family Planning, 34(3), 2003, pp. 200–210. PMID 14558322
Elise Klouman, Rachel Manongi, Knut-Inge Klepp, "Self-reported and observed female genital cutting in rural Tanzania: Associated demographic factors, HIV and sexually transmitted infections" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, Tropical Medicine and International Health 10(1), 2005, pp. 105–115. PMID 15655020 doi:10.1111/j.1365-3156.2004.01350.x
In Sudan in 2006, a significant percentage of infibulated women and girls reported a less severe type. See Susan Elmusharaf, Nagla Elhadi, Lars Almroth, "Reliability of self reported form of female genital mutilation and WHO classification: cross sectional study" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, British Medical Journal, 332(7559), 27 June 2006. PMID 16803943 PMC 1502195 doi:10.1136/bmj.38873.649074.55
^ 40.0 40.1 UNICEF 2013 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, p. 47, Table 5.2;
Yoder, Wang and Johansen, 2013 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, p. 189.
^ WHO 2014 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）; WHO 2008 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, p. 4, and Annex 2, p. 24, for Types I–IV; Annex 2, pp. 23–28, for a more detailed discussion.
^ WHO 2008 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, p. 25. Also see Nahid Toubia, "Female Circumcision as a Public Health Issue" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, The New England Journal of Medicine, 331(11), 1994, pp. 712–716. PMID 8058079 doi:10.1056/NEJM199409153311106
Carol R. Horowitz, J. Carey Jackson, Mamae Teklemariam, "Female Circumcision" (letters) （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, The New England Journal of Medicine, 332, 19 January 1995, pp. 188–190; Toubia's reply （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）. doi:10.1056/NEJM199501193320313
^ Susan Izett, Nahid Toubia, Female Genital Mutilation: An Overview, World Health Organization, 1998.
^ WHO 2014 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）.
^ 45.0 45.1 45.2 45.3 45.4 45.5 45.6 45.7 45.8 Abdulcadira, Jasmine; Margairaz, C.; Boulvain, M; Irion, O. "Care of women with female genital mutilation/cutting" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, Swiss Medical Weekly, 6(14), January 2011 (review).
^ 46.0 46.1 Comfort Momoh, "Female genital mutilation" in Comfort Momoh (ed.), Female Genital Mutilation, Oxford: Radcliffe Publishing, 2005, p. 7 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）; also see Edna Adan Ismail, "Female genital mutilation survey in Somaliland" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, Edna Adan Maternity and Teaching Hospital, 2009, pp. 12–14.
^ Ismail 2009 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, p. 12; also see Abusharaf 2007, p. 190 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）.
^ Abdulcadira et al. 2011 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）.
^ For a twig, Momoh 2005, p. 7 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）.
^ Kelly and Hillard 2005 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, p. 491; for the poultice, Ismail 2009 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, p. 14.
^ Kelly and Hillard 2005 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, p. 491 (Kelly and Hillard say the girls are tied for 2–6 weeks); Momoh 2005, pp. 6–7 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）; for progressive loosening of the binding, Ismail 2009 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, p. 14.
^ Abdalla 2007, p. 190 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）.
^ Abdalla 2007, pp. 191, 198 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）; for the relatives, Ismail 2009 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, p. 14.
^ Hanny Lightfoot-Klein, "The Sexual Experience and Marital Adjustment of Genitally Circumcised and Infibulated Females in The Sudan" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, The Journal of Sex Research, 26(3), 1989 (pp. 375–392), p. 380.
Also see El Dareer 1982, pp. 42–49; Hanny Lightfoot-Klein, Prisoners of Ritual: An Odyssey Into Female Genital Circumcision in Africa, New York: Routledge, 1989.
^ Kelly and Hillard 2005 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, p. 491.
^ Asma El Dareer, Woman, Why Do You Weep: Circumcision and its Consequences, London: Zed Press, 1982, pp. 56–64.
Also see Rebecca J. Cooke, Bernard M. Dickens, "Special commentary on the issue of reinfibulation" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, International Journal of Gynaecology and Obstetrics, 109(2), May 2010, pp. 97–99. PMID 20178881 doi:10.1016/j.ijgo.2010.01.004
Gamal I. Serour, "The issue of reinfibulation" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, International Journal of Gynaecology and Obstetrics, 109(2), May 2010, pp. 93–96. PMID 20138274 doi:10.1016/j.ijgo.2010.01.001
Olukunmi O. Balogun, et al., "Interventions for improving outcomes for pregnant women who have experienced genital cutting" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 2, 2013. PMID 23450610 doi:10.1002/14651858.CD009872.pub2
^ WHO 2008 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, p. 24; UNICEF 2013 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, p. 7.
^ 58.0 58.1 WHO 2008 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, p. 27.
^ "Female Genital Mutilation: A Teachers' Guide", World Health Organization, 2005, p. 31.
^ For the countries in which labia stretching is found (Botswana, Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda and Zimbabwe), see Nkiru Nzegwu, "'Osunality' (or African eroticism)" in Sylvia Tamale (ed.), African Sexualities: A Reader, Cape Town: Fahamu/Pambazuka, 2011, p. 262.
For the rest, Brigitte Bagnol and Esmeralda Mariano, "Politics of Naming Sexual Practices," in Tamale 2011, pp. 272–276 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） (p. 272 for Uganda).
^ Mairo Usman Mandara, "Female genital cutting in Nigeria: View of Nigerian Doctors on the Medicalization Debate," in Bettina Shell-Duncan and Ylva Hernlund (eds.), Female "Circumcision" in Africa: Culture Controversy and Change, Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2000 (pp. 253–282), pp. 98 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, 100; for fistulae, p. 102.
Mairo Usman Mandara, "Female genital mutilation in Nigeria" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, International Journal of Gynecology & Obstetrics, 84(3), pp. 291–298. PMID 15001386 doi:10.1016/j.ijgo.2003.06.001
^ Stephanie Sinclair, "Inside a Female-Circumcision Ceremony" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, The New York Times Magazine, April 2006, slideshow of images from Indonesia (article （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）).
^ Rigmor C. Berg, et al., "Effects of female genital cutting on physical health outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, BMJ Open, 4(11), 2014: e006316. PMID 25416059 doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2014-006316
^ 64.0 64.1 Dan Reisel, Sarah M. Creighton, "Long term health consequences of Female Genital Mutilation (FGM)" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, Maturitas, 80(1), January 2015 (pp. 48–51), p. 49. PMID 25466303 doi:10.1016/j.maturitas.2014.10.009
^ "Female genital mutilation" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, New York: World Health Organization, February 2014.
^ Rigmor C. Berg, Vigdis Underland, Immediate health consequences of female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C) （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, Kunnskapssenteret (Norwegian Knowledge Centre for the Health Services), systematic review no. 8, 2014, pp. 4–5 (full text （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）). ISBN 978-82-8121-856-7
^ Christos Iavazzo, Thalia A. Sardi, Ioannis D. Gkegkes, "Female genital mutilation and infections: a systematic review of the clinical evidence" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, Archives of Gynecology and Obstetrics, 287(6), June 2013, pp. 1137–1149. PMID 23315098 doi:10.1007/s00404-012-2708-5
^ UNICEF 2005 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, p. 16.
^ 69.0 69.1 69.2 69.3 Reisel and Creighton 2015 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, p. 50.
^ 70.0 70.1 70.2 Kelly and Hillard 2005 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, pp. 491–492
^ Amish J. Dave, Aisha Sethi, Aldo Morrone, "Female Genital Mutilation: What Every American Dermatologist Needs to Know" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, Dermatologic Clinics, 29(1), January 2011, pp. 103–109. PMID 21095534 doi:10.1016/j.det.2010.09.002
^ Hamid Rushwan, "Female genital mutilation: A tragedy for women's reproductive health" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, African Journal of Urology, 19(3), September 2013, pp. 130–133. doi:10.1016/j.afju.2013.03.002
^ El Dareer 1982, p. 37. Also see Asma El Dareer, "Preliminary report on a study on prevalence and epidemiology of female circumcision in Sudan today," WHO seminar, Khartoum, 10–15 February 1979; Asma el Dareer, "Female circumcision and its consequences for mother and child," Yaounde, 12–15 December 1979, cited in Rushwan 2013 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）.
^ Nahid Toubia, Caring for Women with Circumcision: A Technical Manual for Health Care Providers, New York: RAINBO, 1999, cited in Mumtaz Rashid, Mohammed H. Rashid, "Obstetric management of women with female genital mutilation" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, The Obstetrician and Gynaecologist, 9(2), April 2007, pp. 95–101. doi:10.1576/toag.9.2.095.27310
^ Rashid and Rashid 2007 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, p. 99.
^ Rashid and Rashid 2007 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, p. 97.
^ Emily Banks, et al, "Female genital mutilation and obstetric outcome: WHO collaborative prospective study in six African countries" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, The Lancet, 367(9525), 3 June 2006, pp. 1835–1841. PMID 16753486 doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(06)68805-3"New study shows female genital mutilation exposes women and babies to significant risk at childbirth" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, World Health Organization, 2 June 2006.
^ Rigmor C. Berg, Eva Denison, "A Tradition in Transition: Factors Perpetuating and Hindering the Continuance of Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting (FGM/C) Summarized in a Systematic Review" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, Health Care for Women International, 34(10), March 2013. PMID 23489149 PMC 3783896 doi:10.1080/07399332.2012.721417.
For a summary of Berg and Denison, see Reisel and Creighton 2015 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, p. 51.
Also see S. Sibiani and A. A. Rouzi, "Sexual function in women with female genital mutilation" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, Fertility and Sterility, 93(3), September 2008, pp. 722–724. PMID 19028385 doi:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2008.10.035
^ Gerry Mackie, John LeJeune, "Social Dynamics of Abandonment of Harmful Practices: A New Look at the Theory", Innocenti Working Paper No. 2008-XXX, UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre, 2008, p. 5.
^ UNICEF 2014 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, p. 3.
^ UNICEF 2013, p. 2.
^ UNFPA–UNICEF 2012 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, p. 12.
^ "National Legislation, Decrees and Statements Banning FGM/C" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, UNFPA Egypt.
^ Alexandra Topping, "Nigeria's female genital mutilation ban is important precedent, say campaigners" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, The Guardian, 29 May 2015.
^ Yoder, Wang and Johansen, 2013 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, p. 190.
^ UNICEF 2013 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, Box 1.1, p. 4.
^ Yoder, Wang and Johansen, 2013 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, p. 190; "DHS overview" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, Demographic and Health Surveys; "Questionnaires and Indicator List" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys, UNICEF.
^ Yoder, Wang and Johansen, 2013 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, p. 191; Dara Carr, Female genital cutting: Findings from the Demographic and Health Surveys program, Calverton, MD: Macro International Inc., 1997.
^ UNICEF 2013 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, pp. 3, 5.
^ Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting: What Might the Future Hold? （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, New York: UNICEF, 22 July 2014 (hereafter UNICEF 2014), pp. 3, 6.
^ WHO 2008 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, pp. 29–30.
^ 92.0 92.1 UNICEF 2013 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, p. 23.
^ For Australia, New Zealand, Europe, Scandinavia, the United States and Canada, UNICEF 2005 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, p. 4.
^ UNICEF 2013 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, p. 34.
^ UNICEF 2013 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, pp. 28–37.
^ UNICEF 2013 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, pp. 27 (for eight percent), 31 (for the regions).
Berivan A. Yasin, et al, "Female genital mutilation among Iraqi Kurdish women: a cross-sectional study from Erbil city" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, BMC Public Health, 13, September 2013. PMID 24010850 PMC 3844478 doi:10.1186/1471-2458-13-809
^ Yoder, Wang and Johansen, 2013 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, p. 196, 198.
^ Yoder, P. Stanley. Female Genital Cutting in Guinea: Qualitative and Quantitative Research Strategies (PDF). MEASURE DHS+. 2001-06: 3 [2016-03-19]. （原始内容存档 (PDF)于2016-10-19）.
^ For Chad, UNICEF 2013 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, pp. 35–36; for Nigeria, T. C. Okeke, et al, "An Overview of Female Genital Mutilation in Nigeria" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, Annals of Medical Health Sciences Research, 2(1), Jan–June 2012, pp. 70–73. PMID 23209995 PMC 3507121 doi:10.4103/2141-9248.96942 FGM is practised in Nigeria by the Yoruba, Hausa, Ibo, Ijaw and Kanuri people.
^ Agence France-Presse: 伊拉克库尔德地区禁止女性割礼. The Raw story. [2014-09-16]. （原始内容存档于2013-05-15）.
^ For rural areas, UNICEF 2013 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, p. 28; for wealth, p. 40; for education, p. 41.
^ UNICEF 2013 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, p. 134–135.
^ Mohammed A. Tag-Eldin, "Prevalence of female genital cutting among Egyptian girls" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 86(4), April 2008.
^ Gerry Mackie, "Female Genital Cutting: A Harmless Practice?" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, Medical Anthropology Quarterly, 17(2), 2003 (pp. 135–158), p. 148.
^ 105.0 105.1 105.2 Salah M. Rasheedemail, Ahmed H. Abd-Ellah, Fouad M. Yousef, "Female genital mutilation in Upper Egypt in the new millennium" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, International Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics, 114(1), July 2011, pp. 47–50. doi:10.1016/j.ijgo.2011.02.003 PMID 21513937
^ For north and south, Okeke, et al 2012 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, pp. 70–73.
^ Yoder and Khan 2008 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, pp. 13–14.
^ UNICEF 2013 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, p. 47, Table 5.2.
^ UNICEF 2013 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, p. 114: "In Somalia, Eritrea, Niger, Djibouti and Senegal, more than one in five girls have undergone the most radical form of the practice known as infibulation ..."
^ "Nigeria: Statistical profile on female genital mutilation/cutting" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, UNICEF, July 2014.
^ 111.0 111.1 111.2 UNICEF 2013 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, p. 50.
^ Gerry Mackie, "Female Genital Cutting: The Beginning of the End", in Shell-Duncan and Hernlund 2000 (pp. 253–282), p. 275.
^ 113.0 113.1 UNICEF 2013 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, pp. 47, 183.
^ UNICEF 2005 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, p. 6.
^ UNICEF 2013 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, p. 51.
^ UNICEF 2013 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, p. 99.
^ Yoder, Wang and Johansen, 2013 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, p. 193; UNICEF 2013 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, pp. 99, 114.
^ UNICEF 2014 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, p. 2.
^ Togo （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, UNICEF, July 2014, p. 4; Benin （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, UNICEF, July 2014, p. 4.
^ UNICEF 2013 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, pp. 85, 113.
^ UNICEF 2013 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, pp. 25, 100; Yoder, Wang and Johansen, 2013 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, p. 196.
^ Yoder, Wang and Johansen, 2013 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, p. 194; UNICEF 2013 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, p. 25.
^ Abdalla 2007, p. 187 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）.
^ Hayes 1975 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, pp. 620, 624.
^ Gerry Mackie, "Ending Footbinding and Infibulation: A Convention Account" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, American Sociological Review, 61(6), December 1996 (pp. 999–1017), pp. 999–1000. Also see Mackie 2000, p. 256.
^ "Stephanie Welsh" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, 1996 Pulitzer Prize winners
^ Rogaia Mustafa Abusharaf, "Introduction: The Custom in Question," in Abusharaf 2007, p. 8 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）; El Guindi 2007, pp. 36–37.
^ Fuambai Ahmadu, "Rites and Wrongs: An Insider/Outsider Reflects on Power and Excision," in Shell-Duncan and Hernlund 2000, pp. 284–285.
^ Janice Boddy, Civilizing Women: British Crusades in Colonial Sudan, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2007, pp. 112. Also see Silverman 2004 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, p. 429.
^ Ellen Gruenbaum, "Socio-Cultural Dynamics of Female Genital Cutting: Research Findings, Gaps, and Directions" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, Culture, Health & Sexuality, 7(5), September–October 2005 (pp. 429–441), pp. 435–436.
^ Gruenbaum 2005 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, p. 437; Gruenbaum 2001, p. 140; Janice Boddy, Wombs and Alien Spirits: Women, Men, and the Zar Cult in Northern Sudan, Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1989, p. 52 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）.
^ Gruenbaum 2005 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, p. 437.
^ Bagnol and Mariano 2011, pp. 277–281; for Type IV, WHO 2008 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, pp. 27–28.
^ UNICEF 2013 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, p. 67.
^ Asma El Dareer, "Attitudes of Sudanese People to the Practice of Female Circumcision" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, International Journal of Epidemiology, 12(2), 1983 (pp. 138–144), p. 140. PMID 6874206 doi:10.1093/ije/12.2.138
^ UNICEF 2013 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, p. 178.
^ UNICEF 2013 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, p. 52: "The highest levels of support can be found in Mali, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Somalia, Gambia and Egypt, where more than half the female population think the practice should continue." Also see Figure 6.1, p. 54 and Figures 8.1A – 8.1D, pp. 90–91.
^ 138.0 138.1 UNICEF 2013 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, p. 15.
^ Gruenbaum 2005 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, pp. 432–433.
^ Mackie 2003 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, pp. 147–148.
^ UNICEF-UNFPA 2012 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, pp. 21–22.
Nafissatou J. Diop, Amadou Moreau, Hélène Benga, "Evaluation of the Long-term Impact of the TOSTAN Programme on the Abandonment of FGM/C and Early Marriage: Results from a qualitative study in Senega" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, UNICEF, January 2008.
Louisa Kasdon, "A Tradition No Longer" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, World & I, November–December 2005, pp. 66–73.
Jean Faraca, "Confronting Female Genital Cutting"[失效链接], Wisconsin Public Radio, interview with Molly Melching and Gerry Mackie, 3 November 2011, from 2:43 mins.
^ For Malicounda Bambara, Mackie 2000, p. 256ff; for over 7,000 communities, "Our Success" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, Tostan, accessed 25 October 2014.
^ Malick Gueye, "Social Norm Change Theorists meet again in Keur Simbara, Senegal" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, Tostan, 4 February 2014.
^ UNICEF 2013 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, pp. 69–70; Figure 6.12, p. 71.
^ Gruenbaum 2001, p. 50; Mackie and LeJeune 2008, p. 8.
^ UNFPA-UNICEF Joint Programme on Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting: Accelerating Change[失效链接], Summary Report of Phase I, 2008–2013 (hereafter 2013 UNFPA-UNICEF Joint Programme evaluation), p. 26.
^ Mackie 1996 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, p. 1008.
^ Mackie 1996 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, pp. 1004–1005.
^ Also see Ibrahim Lethome Asmani, Maryam Sheikh Abdi, "De-linking Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting from Islam" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, USAID/UNFPA, 2008.
^ "Fresh progress toward the elimination of female genital mutilation and cutting in Egypt" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, UNICEF, 2 July 2007; UNICEF 2013 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, p. 70.
^ Maggie Michael, "Egypt Officials Ban Female Circumcision" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, Associated Press, 29 June 2007, p. 2.
^ For animist groups, UNICEF 2013 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, p. 175; for Christians, p. 73.
^ UNICEF 2013 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, front page: "Niger. 55% of Christian girls and women have undergone FGM/C, compared to 2% of Muslim girls and women," and p. 73.
^ Samuel Waje Kunhiyop, African Christian Ethics, Zondervan, 2008, p. 297: "Nowhere in all of Scripture or in any of recorded church history is there even a hint that women were to be circumcised."
For missionaries, Jocelyn Murray, "The Church Missionary Society and the 'Female Circumcision' Issue in Kenya 1929–1932" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, Journal of Religion in Africa, 8(2), 1976, pp. 92–104.
^ Shaye J. D. Cohen, Why Aren't Jewish Women Circumcised? Gender and Covenant In Judaism, Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005, p. 59 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）; Adele Berlin (ed.), "Circumcision," The Oxford Dictionary of the Jewish Religion, New York: Oxford University Press, 2011, p. 173.
^ Mary Knight, "Curing Cut or Ritual Mutilation?: Some Remarks on the Practice of Female and Male Circumcision in Graeco-Roman Egypt" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, Isis, 92(2), June 2001 (pp. 317–338), p. 330.
Also see Adriaan de Buck and Alan H. Gardiner, The Egyptian Coffin Texts, Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1961, Vol. 7, pp. 448–450.
^ Mackie 1996 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, p. 1003; Abusharaf 2007, p. 2.
^ Mackie 2000, pp. 264, 267; UNICEF 2013 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, p. 30; Shell-Duncan and Hernlund 2000, p. 13; Mackie 1996 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, p. 1003.
Also see C. G. Seligman, "Aspects of the Hamitic problems in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）,The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, 1913, 40(3), (pp. 593–705), pp. 639–646; Esther K. Hicks, Infibulation: Female Mutilation in Islamic Northeastern Africa, Transaction Publishers, 1996, p. 19ff.
^ Knight 2001 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, p. 330. Knight adds that Egyptologists are uncomfortable with the translation to uncircumcised, because there is no information about what constituted the circumcised state.
Paul F. O'Rourke, "The 'm't-Woman" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, Zeitschrift für Ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde, 134(2), February 2007 (pp. 166–172), pp. 166ff (hieroglyphs), 172 (menstruating woman). doi:10.1524/zaes.2007.134.2.166
^ Knight 2001 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, pp. 329–330; F. G. Kenyon, Greek Papyri in the British Museum, British Museum, 1893, pp. 31–32 (also here [1]).
^ Knight 2001 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, p. 331, citing G. Elliot Smith, A Contribution to the Study of Mummification in Egypt, Cairo: L'Institut Egyptien, 1906, p. 30, and Marc Armand Ruffer, Studies in the Paleopathology of Egypt, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1921, p. 171.
^ Knight 2001 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, p. 318.
^ Strabo, Geographica, Book VII, chapter 2, 17.2.5. Cohen 2005, p. 59ff （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, argues that Strabo conflated the Jews with the Egyptians).
^ Knight 2001 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, p. 326.
^ Knight 2001 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, p. 333.
^ Knight 2001 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, p. 326 (Knight writes that the attribution to Galen is suspect).
^ Knight 2001 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, pp. 327–328 (a paragraph break has been added for ease of reading).
^ Knight 2001 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, p. 328.
^ Mackie 1996 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, p. 1003.
^ Mackie 1996 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, p. 1009.
^ J. F. C. "Isaac Baker Brown, F.R.C.S.", Medical Times and Gazette, 8 February 1873, p. 155.
^ Sarah W. Rodriguez, "Rethinking the History of Female Circumcision and Clitoridectomy: American Medicine and Female Sexuality in the Late Nineteenth Century" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences. 63(3), July 2008, pp. 323–347. PMID 18065832 doi:10.1093/jhmas/jrm044
^ Robert Thomas, The Modern Practice of Physick, London: Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, and Brown, 1813, pp. 585–586.
Edward Shorter, From Paralysis to Fatigue: A History of Psychosomatic Illness in the Modern Era, New York: Simon and Schuster, 2008, p. 82 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）.
^ Shorter 2008, p. 82 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）; Uriel Elchalal, et al., "Ritualistic Female Genital Mutilation: Current Status and Future Outlook" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, Obstetrical & Gynecological Survey, 52(10), October 1997, pp. 643–651. PMID 9326757
^ Elchalal, et al, 1997 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）; Peter Lewis Allen, The Wages of Sin: Sex and Disease, Past and Present, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000, p. 106 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）.
^ J. F. C. 1873, p. 155; Allen 2000, p. 106 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）.
^ John Black, "Female genital mutilation: a contemporary issue, and a Victorian obsession" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, 90, July 1997 (pp. 402–405), p. 403, 404–405. PMID 9290425 PMC 1296388
Allen 2000, p. 106 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）; also see Elizabeth Sheehan, "Victorian Clitoridectomy: Isaac Baker Brown and His Harmless Operative Procedure" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, Medical Anthropology Newsletter, 12(4), August 1981. PMID 12263443
^ Deborah Kuhn McGregor, From Midwives to Medicine: The Birth of American Gynecology, New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1998, p. 146.
^ John Milton Hoberman, Testosterone Dreams: Rejuvenation, Aphrodisia, Doping, University of California Press, 2005, p. 63.
^ Lawrence Cutner, "Female genital mutilation" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, Obstetrical & Gynecological Survey, 40(7), July 1985, pp. 437–443. PMID 4022475 Cited in Nawal M. Nour, "Female Genital Cutting: A Persisting Practice" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, Reviews in Obstetrics and Gynecology, 1(3), Summer 2008, pp. 135–139. PMID 19015765 PMC 2582648 Also see G. J. Barker-Benfield, The Horrors of the Half-Known Life: Male Attitudes Toward Women and Sexuality in Nineteenth-Century America, New York: Routledge, 1999, p. 113.
^ Kenneth Mufuka, "Scottish Missionaries and the Circumcision Controversy in Kenya, 1900–1960" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, International Review of Scottish Studies, 28, 2003, p. 55.
^ Lynn M. Thomas,"'Ngaitana (I will circumcise myself)': Lessons from Colonial Campaigns to Ban Excision in Meru, Kenya" in Shell-Duncan and Hernlund, 2000, p. 132 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）.
For irua, Jomo Kenyatta, Facing Mount Kenya, New York: Vintage Books, 1962 [1938], p. 129; for irugu being outcasts, Kenyatta, p. 127, and Zabus 2008, pp. 48–49.
^ Kenyatta 1962 [1938], pp. 127–130.
^ Klaus Fiedler, Christianity and African Culture, Leiden: Brill, 1996, p. 75.
^ Boddy 2007, pp. 241–245 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）.
Also see Ronald Hyam, Empire and Sexuality: The British Experience, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1990; Murray 1976 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, pp. 92–104.
^ Thomas 2000, p. 132; for the "sexual mutilation of women", Karanja 2009, p. 93 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, n. 631.
Also see Robert Strayer, Jocelyn Murray, "The CMS and Female Circumcision", in Robert Strayer (ed.), The Making of Missionary Communities in East Africa, New York: State University of New York Press, 1978, p. 139ff.
^ Boddy 2007, pp. 241 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, 244 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）.
Dana Lee Robert, American Women in Mission: A Social History of Their Thought and Practice, Macon: Mercer University Press, 1996, p. 230.
^ Thomas 2000, pp. 129–131 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） (p. 131 for the girls as "central actors"); Lynn Thomas, Politics of the Womb: Women, Reproduction, and the State in Kenya, Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003, pp. 89–91.
Also see Lynn M. Thomas, Ngaitana (I will circumcise myself)': The Gender and Generational Politics of the 1956 Ban on Clitoridectomy in Meru, Kenya" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, Gender and History, 8(3), November 1996, pp. 338–363.
Kenya banned FGM in 2011; see UNFPA–UNICEF 2012 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, p. 14.
^ UNICEF 2013 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, p. 10, calls the Egyptian Doctors' Society opposition the "first known campaign" against FGM; for independence, Boddy 2007, p. 147.
^ Boddy 2007, pp. 202, 299.
^ UNICEF 2013 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, pp. 2, 9.
^ Elizabeth Heger Boyle, Female Genital Cutting: Cultural Conflict in the Global Community, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002, pp. 92, 103.
^ Boyle 2002, p. 41.
^ Bagnol and Mariano 2011, p. 281.
^ Gruenbaum 2001, p. 22.
Homa Khaleeli, "Nawal El Saadawi: Egypt's radical feminist" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, The Guardian, 15 April 2010.
Jenna Krajeski, "The Books of Nawal El Saadawi" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, The New Yorker, 7 March 2011.
Jenna Krajeski, "Rebellion" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, The New Yorker, 14 March 2011.
^ Nawal El Saadawi, The Hidden Face of Eve, London: Zed Books, 2007 [1980], p. 14.
^ Hayes 1975 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, p. 618; Gruenbaum 2001, p. 21.
^ Yoder and Khan 2008 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, p. 2.
^ Mackie 2003 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, p. 139.
^ Hosken 1994 [1979], p. 5.
^ Boyle 2002, p. 47; Bagnol and Mariano 2011, p. 281.
^ Shahira Ahmed, "Babiker Badri Scientific Association for Women's Studies", in Abusharaf 2007, pp. 176–180.
^ Ahmed 2007, p. 180.
^ Anika Rahman and Nahid Toubia, Female Genital Mutilation: A Guide to Laws and Policies Worldwide, New York: Zed Books, 2000, p. 10–11; for Vienna, UNICEF 2013 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） p. 8.
^ Emma Bonino, "A brutal custom: Join forces to banish the mutilation of women" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, The New York Times, 15 September 2004; Maputo Protocol, pp. 7–8.
^ 206.0 206.1 UNICEF 2013 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, p. 8.
^ UNICEF 2013 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, pp. 8–9;UNFPA–UNICEF 2012 annual report （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, p. 12].
^ "48/104. Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, United Nations General Assembly, 20 December 1993.
Charlotte Feldman-Jacobs, "Commemorating International Day of Zero Tolerance to Female Genital Mutilation" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, Population Reference Bureau, February 2009.
^ UNICEF 2013 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, p. 15; Francesca Moneti, David Parker, The Dynamics of Social Change （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, Florence: UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre, October 2010, p. 6.
^ UNICEF 2013 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, p. 15; Michael Miller and Francesca Moneti, Changing a harmful social convention: Female genital cutting/mutilation （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, Florence: UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre, 2005.
^ WHO 2008 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, p. 8; Yoder, Wang and Johansen, 2013 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, p. 190.
^ "No time to lose: New UNICEF data show need for urgent action on female genital mutilation and child marriage" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, UNICEF, 22 July 2014; "Girl Summit" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, The Guardian.
^ "UNFPA–UNICEF Joint Programme on Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting: Accelerating Change"[失效链接], Volume 1, 2008–2012, September 2013, p. viii.
^ 2013 UNFPA-UNICEF Joint Programme evaluation[失效链接], p. 38.
^ "Joint Programme on the Abandonment of Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting. Funding Proposal for a Phase II"[失效链接], UNFPA–UNICEF, January 2014.
"Joint Programme on the Abandonment of Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting. Management Response and Key Actions" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, UNFPA–UNICEF, 19 February 2014.
^ 2013 UNFPA-UNICEF Joint Programme evaluation[失效链接], pp. 4, 16–17; for alternative rites of passage and the Saleema initiative, pp. 22–23.
^ UNFPA–UNICEF 2012 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, p. 48.
^ UNFPA–UNICEF 2012 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, pp. 12–13.
^ UNICEF 2005 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, p. 4.
^ Australia: "Review of Australia's Female Genital Mutilation Legal Framework" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, Attorney General's Department, Government of Australia.
New Zealand: "Section 204A – Female genital mutilation – Crimes Act 1961" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, New Zealand Parliamentary Counsel Office.
Europe: "Eliminating female genital mutilation" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, European Commission.
United States: "18 U.S. Code § 116 – Female genital mutilation" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, Legal Information Institute, Cornell University Law School.
Canada: Section 268 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, Criminal Code.
^ Birgitta Essén, Sara Johnsdotter, "Female Genital Mutilation in the West: Traditional Circumcision versus Genital Cosmetic Surgery", Acta Obstetricia Gynecologica Scandinavica, 83(7), July 2004 (pp. 611–613), p. 611. PMID 15225183
^ Boyle 2002 p. 97.
^ Clyde H. Farnsworth, "Canada Gives Somali Mother Refugee Status" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, The New York Times, 21 July 1994.
^ Section 268 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, Criminal Code; UNICEF 2013 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, p. 8.
Also see Audrey Macklin, "The Double-Edged Sword: Using the Criminal Law Against Female Genital Mutilation," in Abusharaf 2007, p. 211ff; "Female Genital Cutting" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, Clinical practice guidelines, No. 299, The Society of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists of Canada, November 2013.
^ Also see Mobina S. B. Jaffer, "Criminal Code, Bill to Amend – Second Reading （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, Debates of the Senate (Hansard), 1st Session, 41st Parliament, 148(79), 15 May 2012.
^ Wanda K. Jones, et al., "Female Genital Mutilation/Female Circumcision: Who Is at Risk in the U.S.?" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, Public Health Reports, 112, September/October 1997 (pp. 368–377), p. 372.
^ Julie Turkewitz, "Effects of Ancient Custom Present New Challenge to U.S. Doctors: Genital Cutting Cases Seen More as Immigration Rises" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, The New York Times, 6 February 2015.
Alexandra Topping, "FGM affects three times more people in the US than previously thought" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, The Guardian, 5 February 2015.
^ Patricia Dysart Rudloff, "In Re: Oluloro: Risk of female genital mutilation as 'extreme hardship' in immigration proceedings" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, 26 Saint Mary's Law Journal, 877, 1995.
^ Nussbaum 1999, pp. 118–119.
Celia W. Dugger, "June 9–15; Asylum From Mutilation",The New York Times, 16 June 1996.
"In re Fauziya KASINGA, file A73 476 695" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, U.S. Department of Justice, Executive Office for Immigration Review, decided 13 June 1996.
^ Alida Yvonne Lasker, "NOTE: Solomon's Choice: The Case for Granting Derivative Asylum to Parents" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, 32 Brooklyn Journal of International Law, 231, 2006.
^ "§116. Female genital mutilation" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, U.S. Government Printing Office; "18 U.S. Code § 116 – Female genital mutilation" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, Legal Information Institute, Cornell University Law School.
"Legislation on Female Genital Mutilation in the United States" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, Center for Reproductive Rights, November 2004, p. 3.
Abusharaf 2007, p. 22.
Susan Deller Ross, Women's Human Rights: The International and Comparative Law Casebook, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2008, pp. 509–511 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）.
^ "Public Law 112–239 - Jan. 2, 2013 - National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2013" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, 2 January 2013, Sec 1088, p. 340.
^ Current policy: "Female Genital Mutilation" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, Pediatrics, 102(1), 1 July 1998, pp. 153–156. PMID 9651425
Withdrawn policy: "Ritual Genital Cutting of Female Minors" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, Pediatrics, 25(5), 1 May 2010, pp. 1088–1093. PMID 20530070 doi:10.1542/peds.2010-0187
Pam Belluck, "Group Backs Ritual 'Nick' as Female Circumcision Option" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, The New York Times, 6 May 2010.
Susan Bewley, Sarah Creighton and Comfort Momoh, "Female genital mutilation: Paediatricians should resist its medicalisation" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, British Medical Journal, 340(7760), 19 June 2010, pp. 1317–1318.
^ "Man gets 10-year sentence for circumcision of 2-year-old daughter" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, Associated Press, 1 November 2006.In 2014 President Barack Obama spoke about FGM for the first time, calling it "a tradition that's barbaric and should be eliminated"; see Nedra Pickler, "Obama To Rename Africa Young Leaders Program For Nelson Mandela" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, Huffington Post, 28 July 2014.
^ Douglas Martin, "Efua Dorkenoo Dies at 65; Key Foe of Genital Cutting in Africa, Middle East" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, The New York Times, 27 October 2014.
Efua Dorkenoo, Cutting the Rose: Female Genital Mutilation, the Practice and its Prevention, London: Minority Rights Group, 1994.
^ Yoder, Wang and Johansen, 2013 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, p. 195.
^ 237.0 237.1 237.2 Renée Kool and Sohail Wahedi, "Criminal Enforcement in the Area of Female Genital Mutilation in France, England and the Netherlands: A Comparative Law Perspective" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, International Law Research, 3(1), 2014, pp. 3–5. doi:10.5539/ilr.v3n1p1
^ Colette Gallard, "Female genital mutilation in France" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, British Medical Journal, 310, 17 June 1995, p. 1592. PMID 7787655 PMC 2549952 That one girl was three months old, Megan Rowling "France reduces genital cutting with prevention, prosecutions – lawyer" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, Thomson Reuters Foundation, 27 September 2012.
^ 239.0 239.1 Megan Rowling. "France reduces genital cutting with prevention, prosecutions – lawyer". Thomson Reuters Foundation. 2012-09-27 [2020-09-11]. （原始内容存档 (PDF)于2017-06-03）.
^ For 1982, Gallard 1995 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, p. 1593; for 1993, Farnsworth (New York Times) 1994 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）.
^ David Gollaher（英语：David Gollaher）, Circumcision: A History of the World's Most Controversial Surgery, New York: Basic Books, 2000, p. 189.
^ Alison Macfarlane and Efua Dorkenoo, "Female Genital Mutilation in England and Wales" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, City University of London and Equality Now, 21 July 2014, p. 3.
"Female genital mutilation: the case for a national plan", House of Commons Home Affairs Committee, Second Report of Session 2014–15.
Also see "Female Genital Mutilation: Report of a Research Methodological Workshop on Estimating the Prevalence of FGM in England and Wales" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, Equality Now, 22–23 March 2012.
For an earlier report, Efua Dorkenoo, Linda Morison, Alison Macfarlane, "A Statistical Study to Estimate the Prevalence of Female Genital Mutilation in England and Wales" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, FORWARD, October 2007.
J. A. Black, G. D. Debelle, "Female genital mutilation in Britain" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, British Medical Journal, 310, 17 June 1995. PMID 7787654 PMC 2549951 doi:10.1136/bmj.310.6994.1590
^ Kool and Wahedi 2014 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, pp. 5–7; "Prohibition of Female Circumcision Act 1985" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, legislation.gov.uk.
^ "Female Genital Mutilation Act 2003" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） and "Prohibition of Female Genital Mutilation (Scotland) Act 2005" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, legislation.gov.uk.
^ "Female Genital Mutilation Act 2003" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, legislation.gov.uk, and "Female Genital Mutilation Act 2003" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） (legal guidance), Crown Prosecution Service: "The Act refers to 'girls', though it also applies to women."
^ "Concluding observations on the seventh periodic report of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, United Nations Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, 26 July 2013, p. 6, paras 36, 37.
^ Sandra Laville, "Doctor found not guilty of FGM on patient at London hospital" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, The Guardian, 4 February 2015.
^ Silverman 2004 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, pp. 420 (for the quote), 427.
^ Vicky Kirby, "Out of Africa: 'Our Bodies Ourselves?'" in Obioma Nnaemeka (ed.), Female Circumcision and the Politics of Knowledge: African Women in Imperialist Discourses, Westport: Praeger, 2005, p. 83.
^ Obioma Nnaemeka, "African Women, Colonial Discourses, and Imperialist Interventions: Female Circumcision as Impetus," in Nnaemeka 2005, p. 33.
^ Nnaemeka 2005, p. 34.
^ Nnaemeka 2005, pp. 34–35.
^ 253.0 253.1 Tamale 2011, pp. 19–20.
^ Christine J. Walley, "Searching for 'Voices': Feminism, Anthropology, and the Global Over Female Genital Operations" in James and Robertson 2002, pp. 18, 34 (for false consciousness), 43.
For the statement, Bagnol and Mariano 2011, p. 281; for Hosken, Daly and Lightfoot-Klein, Robertson 2002, p. 60 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）.
^ Chima Korieh, "'Other' Bodies: Western Feminism, Race and Representation in Female Circumcision Discourse," in Nnaemeka 2005, pp. 121–122 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）.
For the photographs, "Stephanie Welsh" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, 1996 Pulitzer Prize winners; for other examples, Nnaemeka 2005, pp. 30–33.
^ Nnaemeka 2005, pp. 38–39.
^ Sara Johnsdotter and Birgitta Essén, "Genitals and ethnicity: the politics of genital modifications" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, Reproductive Health Matters, 18(35), 2010 (pp. 29–37), p. 32. PMID 20541081 doi:10.1016/S0968-8080(10)35495-4
Samar A. Farage, "Female Genital Alteration: A Sociological Perspective", in Miranda A. Farage and Howard I. Maibach (eds.), The Vulva: Anatomy, Physiology, and Pathology, New York: Informa Healthcare USA, 2006, p. 267.
Marge Berer, "It's female genital mutilation and should be prosecuted" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, British Medical Journal, 334(7608), 30 June 2007, p. 1335. PMID 17599983 PMC 1906631 doi:10.1136/bmj.39252.646042.3A
^ Ronán M. Conroy, "Female genital mutilation: whose problem, whose solution?" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, British Medical Journal, 333(7559), 15 July 2006. PMID 16840444 PMC 1502236
^ El Guindi 2007, p. 33.
^ Lora Wildenthal, The Language of Human Rights in West Germany, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2012, p. 148.
^ Obermeyer 1999 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, p. 94.
^ Rahim (Tahrir Institute) 2014 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）.
^ WHO 2008 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, p. 28.
^ Johnsdotter and Essén 2010 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, p. 33.
^ Johnsdotter and Essén 2010 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, p. 33; Essén and Johnsdotter 2004, p. 613.
^ Nussbaum 1999, pp. 123–124.
Also see Yael Tamir, "Hands Off Clitoridectomy" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, Boston Review, Summer 1996.
Martha Nussbaum, "Double Moral Standards?" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, Boston Review, October/November 1996.
^ Nancy Ehrenreich, Mark Barr, （[//web.archive.org/web/20170517021052/http://www.law.harvard.edu/students/orgs/crcl/vol40_1/ehrenreich.pdf 页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）]页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） "Intersex Surgery, Female Genital Cutting, and the Selective Condemnation of 'Cultural Practices'" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, Harvard Civil Rights-Civil Liberties Law Review, 40(1), 2005 (pp. 71–140), pp. 74–75.
Also see Cheryl Chase, "'Cultural Practice' or 'Reconstructive Surgery'? US Genital Cutting, the Intersex Movement, and Medical Double Standards", in James and Robertson (eds.) 2002, pp. 126–151.